Perfumery Treasures from Africa
Introduction
Africa has contributed some of the world’s most treasured natural perfumery materials. Steffen Arctander’s classic 1960 reference Perfume and Flavor Materials of Natural Origin describes many aromatic substances sourced from the African continent, from ancient incense resins to floral oils. In ancient Egypt, resins like frankincense and myrrh were burned in temples and used in mummification and medicine. Over centuries, African communities and global trade routes built around these aromatics have shaped cultural practices and economies. This report surveys the major natural perfumery materials of African origin, following Arctander’s insights, and adds historical, cultural, and economic context for each. For clarity, we group them into resins, animalics, woods, and floral/herbal oils, highlighting their characteristics and significance.
Resinous Aromatics: Frankincense, Myrrh, Opoponax & Labdanum
Frankincense (Olibanum): Tapping the gnarled Boswellia trees of the Horn of Africa yields frankincense – an ancient aromatic resin. Frankincense trees grow wild in arid regions of Somalia, Somaliland, Ethiopia, and Sudan, where incisions in the bark produce “tears” of resin that harden on exposure (see image). Frankincense resin has a sweet balsamic, woody aroma and has been valued since antiquity. Arctander notes it is harvested primarily in Somalia/Somaliland (with major export hubs historically at Djibouti, Aden, and Port Sudan). In ancient Egypt, frankincense was sacred: burned as temple incense to carry prayers to the gods and used as a preservative balm in embalming. The Incense Trade Route flourished on Arabian camels carrying Somali frankincense north, where it was literally worth its weight in gold. (In Biblical lore, one of the Magi’s gifts to newborn Jesus was frankincense.) Today, East African frankincense is still burned as incense in churches and homes, and distilled for essential oil. However, overharvesting threatens wild Boswellia stands, as trees are often overtapped by locals seeking income. Sustainable cultivation efforts are underway to protect this “millenary gem.” Culturally, frankincense remains central in Horn of Africa traditions – Somali and Ethiopian communities regularly burn it to scent homes and clothing, believing its purifying smoke drives away evil. Arctander describes frankincense (often under its trade name Olibanum) as a pale yellow resin with a fresh, terpenic-lemony top note and a warm balsamic, sweet-woody drydown, widely used in perfumery for incense notes and fixative properties.
Myrrh: Another ancient resin, myrrh is an oleo-gum-resin exuded by Commiphora shrubs native to the same regions as frankincense. Somalia, Somaliland, and Ethiopia are prime sources of myrrh, collected as tear-shaped lumps from Commiphora myrrha and related species. Arctander notes that myrrh has been known for over 3,700 years – it was one of the gifts of antiquity and is mentioned in Egyptian records. The resin has a rich, warm, earthy-balsamic scent with a bittersweet nuance. In ancient Egypt, myrrh was burned in rituals and used in the holy anointing oil and in embalming mixtures. Today it’s still used in traditional medicine (Somali healers call it malmal and apply it to wounds) and in perfumery for its deep amber-like notes. Commercially, myrrh is exported through ports like Berbera, Djibouti, and Aden. From crude myrrh, perfumers prepare myrrh oil (by distillation), resinoid, tincture, and absolute. Arctander describes myrrh as a “typical oleo-gum-resin” – about one-third aromatic oil and the rest resinous and water-soluble gum. Myrrh’s historical value was immense: in ancient trade it was often priced higher than gold. (Notably, Ethiopian civet musk and myrrh were both so precious that Ethiopian emperors used them as diplomatic gifts.) In perfumery, myrrh imparts a tenacious, mystical warmth in oriental and incense fragrances.
Opoponax (Sweet Myrrh): Often called “sweet myrrh,” opoponax is a sister resin to myrrh, obtained from Commiphora guidottii (or erythraea) trees in Somaliland and Ethiopia. It has a sweeter, balsamic-amber aroma compared to the harsher myrrh. Arctander confirms that opoponax resin is collected almost exclusively in Somaliland (he found no evidence of significant Ethiopian production). Historically, opoponax was used in Biblical incense recipes and folk medicine, but it became a notable perfumery ingredient in the 20th century for its honeyed, ambery-balsamic odor. Arctander’s notes: Opoponax resin forms from cuts in the tree bark, similar to myrrh, and yields an essential oil and resinoid used as fixatives in heavy florals and “oriental” perfumes. He remarks that true opoponax has a rich, suave sweetness and was often a component of high-end French perfumes of his era. Culturally, Somali harvesters treat opoponax just like myrrh – it is gathered by nomadic collectors and sold in local markets as incense (sometimes called Hadi or Bisabol myrrh). The main export hub historically was Berbera in Somaliland, from which opoponax traveled to Europe. In modern perfumery, opoponax lends a velvety amber note (for example, it’s famously used in Guerlain’s “Shalimar” base).
Labdanum (Cistus Labdanum): Labdanum is a resinous gum obtained from the rockrose shrub (Cistus ladanifer) which grows around the Mediterranean, including North Africa. This dark, sticky resin has a powerfully sweet, leathery-balsamic and ambery scent and is a cornerstone of “amber” accords in perfumery. Historically, labdanum was collected in Morocco and the Middle East by combing the hair of goats that grazed on cistus (legend has it that goatherds would boil down the resin clinging to the goats’ beards). Arctander notes that labdanum likely originated in the eastern Mediterranean, but by the mid-20th century Spain was the largest producer of crude labdanum gum, with additional production in countries like France and Morocco. The gum is usually solvent-extracted or steam distilled to yield perfumery products: labdanum resinoid, labdanum absolute, and cistus oil. Cistus (Labdanum) Oil is a distilled essence from the gum that Arctander describes as “an amber-colored viscous liquid with a very powerful, sweet-dry, ambra-like odor”. It blends beautifully with oakmoss, vetiver, patchouli and other base notes, imparting a rich amber warmth. Culturally, labdanum’s use dates back to ancient Egypt – it’s believed to be an ingredient in kyphi (the Egyptian temple incense) and was known to Greeks and Arabs as a perfume balm. North African communities (in Morocco’s Rif mountains, for example) still collect rockrose gum in small quantities for local use. Economically, labdanum became a critical fixative for French perfumers especially as a vegetarian substitute for ambergris. Arctander emphasises that labdanum products are indispensable in perfumery for heavy oriental bouquets and “ambre” bases, providing a tenacious sweet-woody depth.
Animalic Perfume Materials: Civet Musk
Civet Musk: The African civet (Civettictis civetta), a nocturnal cat-like mammal, produces one of perfumery’s famed animal notes. Civet secretion is a greasy, yellow paste from the animal’s perineal glands – and while raw civet paste smells fecal and pungent, in minute dilutions it transforms into a sensual, warm musk aroma with floral undertones. Ethiopia is historically the center of civet production, with a tradition of civiculture (civet farming) stretching back many centuries. Arctander notes civet was (as of 1960) among the 20 most important perfume raw materials worldwide. At that time, several tons were produced annually, largely in Ethiopia (which still supplies ~90% of world civet musk), with smaller quantities from farms in Eritrea, Kenya, the Congo, etc.
The cultural history of civet in Ethiopia is remarkable: civet musk was once so valued it served as a form of currency and tribute. According to historians, Ethiopian civet musk was “valued above ivory, gold or myrrh”, and as early as 10th century BC the Queen of Sheba is said to have gifted civet musk to King Solomon. By the 17th–19th centuries, civet musk was a major Ethiopian export (in 1840 it formed 13% of Ethiopia’s export trade). Traditionally, only certain Muslim communities practiced civet farming – keeping civets in cages and “milking” the musk from the glands every few days – a practice passed down through generations. Despite ethical concerns, this practice continues on a smaller scale today to meet niche perfumery demand (though synthetic civetone largely replaces natural civet in modern perfumery).
Arctander’s account highlights civet’s potency and fixative power. He describes the absolute (solvent-extracted from civet paste) as a dark brown, extremely strong material – “one of the most expensive of all perfume materials”. In classic French perfumery, a minute drop of civet tincture could lend sublime warmth and diffusiveness to a floral bouquet or chypre perfume. The Ethiopian civet paste was often graded by strength; high-quality civet has a soft, sweet-musky odor beneath the foul notes. Culturally, Ethiopians themselves found uses for civet: folk remedies included using tiny amounts to treat ailments, and it’s said brides would wear a dab of civet as perfume on their wedding night. Today, due to animal welfare concerns, most fragrances use synthetic civet notes, but the legacy of African civet musk remains – it literally helped set the “base notes” of many 20th-century perfumes.
Aromatic Woods and Balsams: Cedarwoods and African “Sandalwood”
Africa is home to several aromatic woods that yield valuable oils or resins. Arctander’s book details two main cedarwood oils from Africa and a few lesser-known substitutes for sandalwood.
Atlas Cedarwood (Cedrus atlantica): In the Atlas Mountains of Morocco and Algeria grows the Atlas cedar – a true cedar tree related to the famed cedars of Lebanon. Atlas cedarwood oil is steam distilled from sawdust and stumps of this timber, producing a viscous golden oil with a distinctive odor. Arctander describes Atlas cedarwood oil as “yellowish to deep amber-colored, viscous… its odor is peculiar, not exactly pleasant initially – very woody and somewhat phenolic, but it develops a sweet, woody-balsamic undertone on drying”. This oil is rich in sesquiterpene alcohols (like cedrol) that make it an excellent fixative. Morocco produces most of the Atlas cedarwood oil, often as a by-product of cedar timber operations. By 1960, about 15–35 tons were produced annually. In perfumery, Atlas cedarwood is highly valued for its lasting woody base note – Arctander notes it “blends well with labdanum products and all woody or floral-woody types”, providing a dry, resinous backbone to many chypres and fougères. Culturally, cedar has been important in North Africa for millennia: the Ancient Egyptians imported cedarwood (likely from Lebanon) for embalming and incense. The local Atlas cedar is sometimes called “Thuya” or “Araar” in Morocco, and its wood (root burrs) are used in Moroccan artisan woodwork. The oil’s scent – reminiscent of sharpened pencils – even finds use in men’s grooming products. Today, Atlas cedarwood absolute and oil remain popular in niche perfumery for creating “woody amber” accords.
East African Cedarwood (Juniperus procera): On the other side of the continent, East Africa yields a different cedarwood oil – from the pencil cedar, Juniperus procera, which grows in the highlands of Kenya and Ethiopia. By the mid-20th century, Kenya was distilling significant quantities of this oil from sawmill waste (wood chips and shavings), as Arctander details: “East African cedarwood oil is steam distilled from the waste wood in the saw mills of Kenya… The annual production is quite impressive, usually 55–100 metric tons”. This made it a major export to Europe, used especially for chemical isolation of ingredients (cedrol and cedrenol) to make synthetic fragrance compounds. Odor-wise, East African cedarwood is drier and less sweet than American cedar oils: “very dry-woody, somewhat earthy, with a slightly cade-like (smoky) top note; it lacks the rich balsamic note of Virginia cedarwood”. It still serves as a good fixative for soaps and “outdoor” smelling blends, and Arctander notes it “blends well with rose, Oriental bases, moss and violet notes, modifying vetiver, patchouli or sandalwood in modern woody perfumes”. Economically, Kenya’s cedarwood oil was important for the perfumery and flavor industry (for example, cedryl derivatives from this oil were used in countless fragrance formulas as fixatives). However, unsustainable logging raised concerns, and today Juniperus procera is protected in some areas. Locally, East African communities valued the cedarwood for furniture, pencils (hence “pencil cedar”), and as an insect-repelling wood – its oil-rich timber resists rot and bugs.
African “Sandalwood” Substitutes: True sandalwood (Santalum album) is native to India and was transplanted to East Africa in the mid-1900s on a small scale. However, Arctander notes two indigenous African woods that produce sandalwood-like oils:
- Muhuhu (Brachylaena huillensis): Also known as East African camwood, muhuhu is a hardwood from Kenya and Uganda. Its oil, distilled from sawdust, has a soft, sweet-woody scent reminiscent of sandalwood and vetiver. Arctander reports that “from the wood of the Kenyan ‘Muhugwe’ tree comes Muhuhu oil, known outside East Africa for about 30 years… a viscous amber-brown liquid with a soft, balsamic-woody, faintly floral odor, reminiscent of vetiver, sandalwood and the tail-end of Atlas cedarwood oil”. He notes the oil’s quality can vary, but good batches have excellent fixative effects at low cost. In 1960, muhuhu oil was produced only in very limited quantities – it was something of an experimental export from Kenya. Culturally, the wood itself is prized for carving and furniture (it’s very hard and termite-resistant). The notion of distilling it for perfume came from colonial enterprises; locals didn’t traditionally extract its oil. Arctander predicted muhuhu oil “may attract perfumers working with precious wood notes” but also acknowledged it might never be big due to limited supply. Indeed, it remained a niche curiosity, but its sweet woody note is occasionally found in 20th-century formulas as a sandalwood extender.
- East African Sandalwood (Osyris tenuifolia): This wild shrub, found across East Africa (Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda), is a distant relative of true sandalwood. It was locally called “African sandalwood” and sporadically distilled. Arctander describes Osyris oil as “little known; the tree grows wild over large areas… occasional lots are distilled in Kenya”. The oil is orange-yellow, viscous, and extremely mild in scent – “very faint but pleasant woody-sweet odor… crude oils can smell tar-like or dry, akin to Kenya cedarwood”. Because of its low intensity, Osyris oil never became a commercial star. Arctander frankly states it offers no clear advantage over cheaper woody oils and had a doubtful future as a sandalwood replacer. Nonetheless, it’s interesting as an indigenous aromatic – East African pastoralists knew the wood as a perfume plant (some communities would burn Osyris twigs for a mild fragrant smoke). Modern conservationists note Osyris tenuifolia has been over-harvested in places due to demand for “sandalwood” and traditional medicine uses.
Additionally, Arctander alludes to West African scented woods, though these were minor. One example is African copal – resins from trees like Daniellia and Guibourtia in West Africa (often called copal or animé) have a light, sweet resinous odor and were used as incense locally (e.g. in Nigeria and Congo) and as varnish resins. While not a perfumery staple, copal is an “young amber” similar to the American copal Arctander describes. Another is mozambique copal (Manila copal), again mostly for incense. These see limited perfumery use beyond experimental resinoids.
In summary, Africa’s wood oils have provided perfumers with unique notes: the cedars giving powerful woody bases and fixatives, and the sandalwood-like oils offering potential alternatives to Indian sandalwood. While Atlas cedarwood remains a perfumery favorite to this day (often in men’s fragrances for its “leathery-woody” vibe), the African sandalwood substitutes are largely historical footnotes, remembered thanks to Arctander’s comprehensive cataloging.
Floral Absolutes and Essential Oils from Africa
The continent’s diverse climates – from Mediterranean to tropical – allow cultivation or wild-harvesting of many fragrant flowers and herbs. By the mid-20th century, North and East Africa had become important producers of several floral oils and extracts, often in tandem with French perfumers’ demand. Arctander’s book highlights the following key materials:
Rose Oil and Rose Concrete (Morocco & Egypt): While the most famous rose fields lie in Bulgaria and Turkey, Morocco emerged as a major source of rose absolute by the 1950s. In Morocco’s Valley of Roses (around Kelaat M’Gouna in the Atlas foothills), French firms established plantations of Rosa centifolia (the cabbage rose). Arctander notes that “Morocco is by far the largest producer of Rose de Mai concrete today,” estimating over 2000 kg of rose concrete per year by the late 1950s – surpassing even France’s Grasse region. The rose concrete (solvent-extracted from fresh rose petals) is partly processed locally and partly shipped to France for conversion into rose absolute. Moroccan centifolia rose absolute has a rich, honeyed, deep rosy aroma beloved in high-class perfumery. Culturally, the harvest of roses in Morocco has become a celebrated tradition – every spring in Kelaat M’Gouna, a Rose Festival is held, and rose water (a hydrosol) is a common cosmetic and culinary product (used to flavor pastries and as a skin toner in Moroccan households).
Egypt also has a history of rose cultivation: the Damask rose (Rosa damascena) was grown near Cairo (at times in the 19th–20th century) to produce rose water and attar. Arctander mentions Egyptian rose fields but notes that by 1955, “production of geranium oil has been discontinued [in Egypt]… geranium fields were abandoned” – a similar fate befell Egyptian rose fields under competition. However, some rose concrete was produced in Egypt and shipped to France for processing. Today, small rose farms persist in Egypt (e.g. around Fayoum) mainly for rose water. Economically, Moroccan rose products remain important exports; Moroccan rose absolute is considered high quality, often described as having a slightly more fruity and less phenolic nuance than Bulgarian.
Jasmine (Egypt & Morocco): The oil of jasmine (actually an absolute, since jasmine flowers are too delicate for distillation) is one of perfumery’s most prized floral notes. Egypt became a leading producer of jasmine concrete (from Jasminum grandiflorum) after World War II. Fields in the Nile Delta (around Giza and Beni Suef) blossomed with jasmine, hand-picked at night and extracted into concrete. Arctander notes that by the late 1950s, Morocco and Egypt were among the top producers of jasmine concrete, alongside France and Italy. He specifically says: “Minor quantities of jasmine absolute are produced in Italy, Morocco, Egypt, India, etc… In respect to quantity, Morocco [is a major producer]”. Moroccan production of jasmine (notably around Rabat and in the Casablanca region) increased with French investment – though Moroccan jasmine concrete tended to be processed in Grasse to absolute. Egyptian jasmine absolute, on the other hand, became renowned for its fine quality – intensely sweet, narcotic-floral with indolic undertones. Culturally, Egyptians appreciate jasmine in everyday life too: fresh jasmine garlands are sold on Cairo streets in summer evenings, and the flower is nicknamed “Ful” (Arabian jasmine, J. sambac, is also popular for its scent). The jasmine industry has been a significant employer of rural women (who pick the blooms at dawn). By 1960, Egypt was exporting tons of jasmine concrete yearly; Arctander notes that quality control (e.g. avoiding “burnt” odor from sun-warmed flowers) was crucial. Usage: Jasmine absolute is an exalting ingredient in fine perfumes (a classic example: Chanel No.5’s formula uses Grasse and Egyptian jasmine).
Orange Blossom and Neroli (Tunisia, Morocco, Algeria): The bitter orange tree (Citrus aurantium), which yields orange blossom flowers and leaves, has been cultivated around the Mediterranean including North Africa. Neroli oil is the steam-distilled essential oil from orange blossoms, whereas orange blossom absolute is solvent-extracted concrete/absolute from the flowers. Tunisia is famed for its neroli oil – the Cap Bon area (Nabeul) has extensive orchards of bitter orange. Arctander states: “Tunisia and France lead in quality [of neroli oil]. Tunisian oil is very uniform and high quality… Produced in annual quantities of several tons (provided no severe frosts)”. Tunisia and Morocco together account for a large share of world neroli output, with Tunisia traditionally regarded as producing the finest “Neroli Bigarade” oil. Moroccan neroli (from the Rabat region) is also good; Arctander mentions Morocco as a source and notes that Moroccan and Tunisian oils come from slightly different varieties of orange blossom.
Neroli’s scent is a fresh, ethereal floral with citrusy and green facets – a key ingredient in classic Eau de Cologne and many floral perfumes. It takes about 1000 kg of flowers to get 1 kg of neroli oil, so it is precious. Arctander estimated that neroli oil, while expensive, was still about half the price of jasmine absolute and thus used in greater volume. Besides neroli, Petitgrain oil (distilled from the leaves and twigs of the bitter orange) was also produced in Africa – notably Lemon Petitgrain from West Africa. Guinea was, surprisingly, the main source of Petitgrain Citronnier (lemon petitgrain oil) from lemon tree leaves. He writes: “In Guinea (West Africa)… lemon petitgrain oil is produced, the very best and richest oil comes from Guinea”. Also, orange petitgrain (from bitter orange leaves) was produced in Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco. These leafy oils have a green-floral-citrus scent and were used in colognes and chypres.
Culturally, orange blossom is deeply woven into Maghreb culture: orange flower water (Mazhār) is used to flavor desserts and as a refreshing splash for guests. In Tunisia’s Nabeul region during the spring bloom, families traditionally gather blossoms to sell to distilleries or to make their own orange-flower water at home. Brides in North Africa may have orange blossoms in their wedding wreaths (symbol of purity) and a dash of orange blossom water is often sprinkled on them for good luck. Thus, the perfume industry in Tunisia/Morocco grew on top of an existing cultural love for orange flower’s fragrance.
Geranium (Egypt, Algeria, Morocco, Congo): Geranium oil – specifically Rose Geranium oil (from Pelargonium species) – is another pillar of perfumery, often used as a more affordable rosy note. Pelargonium graveolens and related varieties are actually native to South Africa, and French horticulturalists in the 19th century took them to Reunion (then Bourbon) and Algeria to cultivate for oil. By mid-20th century, North and Central Africa became key geranium producers. Arctander outlines several types of geranium oil: Reunion (Bourbon) was the gold standard, but production there was limited; Algeria was once the world’s leading producer, but by the 1950s Algerian output waned due to political instability. In contrast, Morocco’s geranium production surged in the 1950s: “Rapidly increasing importance is the geranium oil distilled in Morocco… inland from Rabat; production has not suffered significantly during the years of terrorism in the early 1950s”. Morocco not only distilled geranium oil but also began extracting geranium concrete and absolute on a large scale. Arctander reports “the main producer of geranium concrete is Morocco… annual production may soon exceed 5 metric tons”, with modern extraction plants around Khemisset and Tiflet.
Geranium oil from Africa (often called “Geranium Bourbon type” if high in roseol components) has a green, minty-rosy scent with a fruity nuance. It is used extensively to extend true rose oil and in many cosmetics. Egypt formerly grew geranium in the Nile Delta – Arctander notes Egypt was a major producer in the 1940s but then stopped cultivation around 1955, possibly due to economic shifts. The Belgian Congo (now DRC) also cultivated geranium in highlands; Arctander mentions “Congo Geranium oil” as a small but growing source. Kenya and Tanzania (Tanganyika then) experimented with geranium as well. By combining outputs, Africa was the dominant source of geranium oil globally (with the exception of Réunion and some output in Europe/South America). The economic importance was significant – geranium oil was among the top ten essential oils by volume/trade in mid-century. Culturally, the plant was introduced to farmers in places like Morocco and Congo as a cash crop. Locals didn’t have traditional uses for Pelargonium on a wide scale (though in South Africa, various pelargoniums were folk remedies). But today, one can find Moroccan villagers recognizing the “rose geranium” scent from distilleries, and in parts of DR Congo, geranium farming provided livelihood in the 1950s–60s. Arctander praises African geranium oils, noting Moroccan and Congo oils high in rhodinol content (the rosy alcohol mix) were of very fine quality, albeit sometimes slightly less diffusive than Reunion oil.
Ylang-Ylang (Comoros & Madagascar): The Ylang-ylang tree (Cananga odorata), though originally from Southeast Asia, found a second home in the islands off Africa’s east coast. The Comoros Islands (notably Ngazidja/Grand Comore and Anjouan) and Madagascar’s Nosy Bé island became the world’s top producers of ylang-ylang oil in the 20th century. The French introduced ylang cultivation there around the late 1800s, and by the 1950s Comoros/Madagascar output of ylang-ylang oil rivaled or exceeded that of the Philippines or Java. Arctander notes that the Philippines (where the tree is native) had virtually negligible production by 1960, whereas “a great part of the ylang-ylang oil production is in Nosy Bé and the Comoro Islands”. He discusses how the distillation technique in these islands (fractional distillation yielding “Extra”, “1st”, “2nd” grades of oil) was more efficient than the primitive methods used in Java, resulting in better yield and quality.
Ylang-ylang oil is a beautifully narcotic floral oil – intensely sweet, creamy, with hints of banana, jasmine, and rubbery notes. It’s a key ingredient in floral bouquets (famous in Chanel No.5 and many others). The Comorian and Malagasy ylang oil was considered the finest in the world. Arctander mentions an annual world production around 1959 of about 20 metric tons of Cananga oil (a related product from Java), nearly equal to pre-war ylang-ylang production – implying ylang-ylang itself was perhaps in that volume range or higher, with Comoros leading. The economy of the Comoros became highly dependent on ylang-ylang (alongside vanilla and cloves). Distilleries dotted the islands, fired by wood (leading to deforestation issues later). Culturally, ylang-ylang’s presence influenced local life – Comorian women would pick the delicate yellow flowers at dawn (the tree is called “The Flower of Flowers” there) and its fragrance became part of the islands’ identity. Some local uses emerged: ylang-ylang macerated in coconut oil created boilingue, a scented hair oil used traditionally in the Comoros.
Arctander in his monograph likely extols the fine fragrance of ylang-ylang and details the fractions (Extra grade being the most floral and volatile). He also warns about adulteration (for example, Java cananga oil or tail-end fractions being mixed into ylang). But overall, African ylang-ylang oil became a staple of high-class perfumery, thanks to those island plantations.
Other African Floral Absolutes: A few other floral extracts from Africa are noted by Arctander:
- Cassie (Acacia farnesiana) Absolute: Cassie (also called sweet acacia or mimosa) is a yellow flower with a powdery violet-like, honey and hay scent. While native to the Americas, it was cultivated in Southern Europe, India, and Egypt for perfumery. Egypt (near Cairo) had significant cassie plantations, as did Morocco, by mid-century. Arctander states: “The plant is cultivated in its native area, in Cyprus, Lebanon, Morocco, Malta, Tunisia, Spain, USSR, etc. … In Egypt (near Cairo) and south of France. Algerian plantations are practically abandoned”. Egyptian cassie concrete was often sent to Grasse for processing. Cassie absolute has a rich floral-woody odor used in mimosa and leather perfumes. Egypt’s long hot summers suited cassie flowering; it had been grown there since the 1920s. Cultural footnote: Egyptians didn’t traditionally use cassie domestically, it was a pure export crop initiated by French interests.
- Narcissus Absolute: Primarily from France, but there were trials in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco for Narcissus poeticus. Arctander doesn’t explicitly list Morocco as producing narcissus concrete in the snippets we saw, but some sources later indicate Morocco did small narcissus harvests. If any, it was minor and likely after 1960. So we can skip or just note that Narcissus tazetta grows wild in North Africa but wasn’t a commercial perfume crop.
- Tuberose Concrete: Again, traditionally from France and Southern India. However, Morocco did start growing tuberose (Polianthes) in the 1950s on a small scale near Casablanca. Arctander doesn’t mention African tuberose explicitly in excerpts, but by 1960 some Moroccan tuberose concrete might have existed. It was likely limited and processed in Grasse.
- Orange Blossom Absolute: Aside from neroli, Tunisia and Morocco also produce orange blossom concrete/absolute by solvent extraction of the flowers. Arctander hints at this: “Concrete from flowers of the sweet orange tree has been produced, but the odor is distinctly different from bitter orange concrete”. It wasn’t a big product then, since distillation for neroli was preferred, but today Tunisian orange blossom absolute is prized.
- Tagetes (Marigold) Oil: An interesting newcomer in Arctander’s time, tagetes (African marigold, Tagetes minuta/glandulifera) yields an essential oil used in perfumery for its green, fruity-herbaceous note (useful in citrus colognes and tobacco accords). This plant, although native to South America, was grown in Africa (notably Kenya, Uganda, and Nigeria). Arctander notes “The production of Tagetes oil in Nigeria is of fairly recent date… 1959 output less than 100 kg”. Similarly, Kenya and the Congo were experimenting with tagetes cultivation for export. The oil has an intense odor (Arctander says an “apple-like note in dilution” and warns it might be toxic due to tagetone). African farmers sometimes call Tagetes “Khakibush” (because it was introduced by colonialists). Locally it’s more a weed than a cherished plant, but it turned into a small export crop mid-century. Today, tagetes oil is still produced in South Africa and Kenya for niche perfumery and flavor uses (e.g. as a natural source of herbaceous notes).
- Buchu Oil: A uniquely South African product, Buchu (Agathosma betulina and A. crenulata) are shrubs in the Cape region whose leaves have an intense blackcurrant-like, camphoraceous odor. Buchu leaf oil was traditionally used in flavorings (blackcurrant candy, etc.) but also tiny amounts in perfumery for its green-fruity note. Arctander’s description: “Buchu Leaf Oil is distilled from dried leaves of Barosma betulina, a herb wild in South Africa… a yellow to brownish oil with a very peculiar odor: strong, bitter-sweet, minty-camphoraceous, penetrating, reminiscent of cough drops. One main constituent is diosphenol (buchu camphor) giving antiseptic character, and significant menthone giving a minty coolness”. He notes most buchu oil was actually distilled overseas from exported leaves (in the UK, Holland, etc.) rather than in South Africa. Buchu leaves have been used by the indigenous Khoisan people as a medicinal herb (for urinary issues) and as a general tonic – buchu brandy is a Cape home remedy. Culturally, buchu was more a medicine than a fragrance locally, but its catty-blackcurrant odor found a place in perfumery in trace amounts (for example, to impart a “fruit nuance” in certain floral perfumes or a “blackcurrant bud” effect in green fragrances). Arctander mentions up to 1000 kg of buchu oil have been available some years, but production was declining by 1960 and the price was high. Indeed, buchu oil remains an expensive specialty.
- African Herbs and Spices: A variety of other essential oils from herbs grown or wild in Africa are covered by Arctander, though often the production was small or the plants introduced from elsewhere. Some examples: rosemary grows wild in North Africa and Ethiopia – Arctander says wild rosemary is found even in Somali and Tanganyika, though most oil came from Mediterranean Europe. Artemisia (wormwood): Morocco distilled Artemisia herba-alba (called “Armoise”) for its camphoraceous oil. Myrtle: Tunisia and Morocco produced myrtle leaf oil (used in colognes). Sweet Marjoram: grown in Tunisia/Morocco as well. Spearmint (Na’na): Grown in Morocco and Egypt mostly for culinary use, but Arctander notes an “oil of spearmint (Mentha spicata var. nana) was distilled in Egypt until 1955”. Coriander seed: Egypt and Morocco grow coriander; seeds from Morocco were distilled in Europe/USA. Egyptian coriander oil is gently spicy and was used in flavors and perfumes (Arctander praises coriander oil’s floral-herbaceous drydown that blends with violet, lilac, etc.). Cumin seed: Egypt and Tunis are traditional sources of cumin spice – some cumin oil was distilled in Egypt (used in flavors and heavy spicy perfumes). Fennel: Wild bitter fennel grew in North Africa; a little oil was made in Morocco/Tunisia. Onion and Garlic oils: Surprisingly, Egypt also produced essential oils of garlic and onion for flavor use (Arctander says Egypt was a major producer of garlic oil from fresh bulbs), though these are flavour ingredients rather than perfumery. Henna (Lawsonia inermis): While henna is not used for its scent, it’s worth noting as a culturally important aromatic plant in Africa. Henna leaves (grown in Sudan, Egypt, Maghreb) are used to dye hair and skin – an ancient cosmetic dating back thousands of years. Arctander mentions henna flowers have a beautiful scent (sometimes compared to tea rose), but “the yield of essential oil is extremely small… inconceivable this oil can become common”. Indeed, henna flower absolute is a rarity. However, the ritual of henna in African and Middle Eastern weddings attests to its esteemed place in the cultural olfactory landscape, even if not in commercial perfumery.
In summary, Africa by 1960 was a crucial supplier of natural floral and herbal essences: North Africa’s orange blossom, rose, jasmine, geranium and Mediterranean herbs; East Africa’s ylang-ylang and spice oils; South Africa’s unique buchu and others. These materials carried not just pleasing scents, but also rich cultural heritages – from the orange flower water in a Tunisian kitchen, to the night jasmine of the Nile, to the rose celebrations of Morocco. Arctander’s work captures a snapshot of that era’s production: he documents how Moroccan geranium concrete “in very modern installations” was rising, how Tunisian neroli dominated quality, and how experimental oils like tagetes or Lippia were being explored.
Notably, Arctander also reports on African aromatic explorations: for example, in the 1950s botanists studied wild perfume plants in East Africa. He mentions discovering new essential oils from wild Lippia species – “the labiate Lippia carviodora found growing wild in Kenya… and Lippia daunensis abundantly in Somaliland; its oil had a scent reminding of tagetes (marigold) and wormwood, with a tobacco-like note”. These were not yet commercial, but show Africa’s untapped fragrant flora.
Economic and Cultural Impact
Reviewing these materials “according to Arctander” highlights how Africa’s natural fragrances bridged traditional uses and global markets. Many of these commodities – frankincense, myrrh, civet, rose oil, etc. – had been valued for ages locally, long before they were exported. For instance, Ethiopian civet farming not only supplied French perfumers, but civet musk was also used in Ethiopian folk medicine and even in coffee ceremonies (a tiny bit of civet would be added to coffee for a musky aroma). Somali and Arabian Incense traditions burned local frankincense and myrrh in daily life – a practice still alive, as entering a Somali home often involves wafting incense smoke over one’s clothes (a custom called bukhoor). North African flower culture meant that long before the perfumer’s distillery, orange blossoms and roses were distilled in village copper stills to make floral waters for cuisine and cosmetics.
On the other hand, European demand created new agricultural industries in Africa. The French perfume houses in the 20th century essentially “outsourced” some raw material production to the African colonies or partners: Algeria and Morocco for geranium and roses, Comoros and Madagascar for ylang-ylang, Tunisia for neroli, Kenya for cedarwood, etc. This provided income and livelihoods (e.g., thousands of rural Tunisian women pick orange flowers each spring for the neroli factories). However, it also made local economies vulnerable to price swings and competition. For example, when synthetic aroma-chemicals or cheaper sources arose, some African productions declined (Egypt’s geranium and peppermint fields were plowed under when cheaper Chinese and Indian oils flooded the market later).
Today, many of these African-sourced materials remain important, though the landscape has shifted. Countries like Somalia still export frankincense and myrrh, but sustainability is a concern. Ethiopia still has civet farms, but synthetic civetone has largely replaced the natural. Morocco and Tunisia continue to be premier sources for neroli, rose, and geranium oils (Morocco’s rose and jasmine concretes are now even larger businesses, with the Moroccan Rose Festival a tourist draw). Comoros and Madagascar remain synonymous with ylang-ylang – though they face challenges from global price pressures and need for reforestation.
In the perfumer’s palette, the legacy of Africa’s natural ingredients is profound. They form the backbone of legendary perfumes and have inspired olfactory themes (e.g. “myrrh and incense” churchy scents, or “Moroccan rose” soliflores, “Egyptian jasmine” orientals, “African leather” with civet, etc.). Each carries a story: the trail of incense smoke from pharaoh’s temples, the caravans of musk and gold across Abyssinia, the morning harvest in a Tunisian orange grove, or the midnight distillations on a tropical island. Arctander’s meticulous documentation preserves these stories in olfactory terms – providing future generations of perfumers and enthusiasts a rich reference to Africa’s fragrant gifts to the world.
Sources
- Steffen Arctander, Perfume and Flavor Materials of Natural Origin (1960) – descriptions of origin, production, and odor of frankincense (olibanum), myrrh, opoponax, labdanum & cistus oil, civet musk, Atlas cedarwood, East African cedarwood, Osyris & Muhuhu oils, Moroccan rose, geranium, jasmine, etc., Tunisian neroli, Guinea petitgrain, Tagetes Nigeria, Buchu South Africa, Lippia in Kenya/Somaliland, Clausena (anisate) in E. Africa, clove in Zanzibar, etc.
- Natural history and cultural context: National Geographic on frankincense sustainability; Civet musk in Ethiopia (AbdesSalaam Attar); Fatima’s Frankincense blog (ancient Egyptian use of frankincense & myrrh). These provide historical anecdotes and current perspectives to complement Arctander’s mid-century data.